It is not human nature to be cruel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

It is not human nature to be cruel - Essay Example The initial theory of conformism, which suggests that a person, who has neither the expertise to make choices, especially in a crisis, will abandon decision making. The group is the persons behavioural model. This implies that cruelty is not part of human nature but can happen under some circumstances. The second is the agentic state theory, which suggests that whenever a person views himself as a tool for carrying out another person’s wishes, they shift responsibility of their actions off from themselves and obey their masters no matter what the orders are. This implies that some individuals shift the blame of their cruel trends to excuse their wrong doings. Milgram in his article gives a summary of the findings of his study as follows: The subject (teacher), a participant in the experiment was expected to choose between obeying an authority figure to inflict pain on a victim (learner) and the welfare of the victim in question. Before conducting the experiment, Milgram conducted an interview on 14 senior psychologists to determine what their predictions would concern the outcome of the experiment. Most of the respondents believed that only a small fraction (0 – 3 %) would be prepared to inflict the maximum pain (Schaefer 154). Apparently the findings suggested otherwise; in the first set of experiments 65% of the participants administered the maximum 450 volts. Even though the findings of this experiments were disputed by the likes of Professor James Waller, Chair of Holocaust and Genocide Studies at Keene State College, Author Gina Perry and the general scientific community as concerns the credibility of his findings, ethical is sues and its applicability to the holocaust, the experiment was replicated on a different variety of subjects, under different circumstances and over a period of years but the findings did not differ much. Holstein in his experiment stated that children who were raised by more loving and caring

English Legal System Essay Example for Free

English Legal System Essay 1. The Sources of English Law What we are concerned about in this regard is the JUSTIFICATION for the decisions reached by our various courts of law, and the principles of law applied by lawyers in relation to commercial and business practices. Laws are created by lawyers, commercial and business law is created by commercial lawyers, but it is business men and women who must abide by, apply and work within it. There are a number of sources of English law, and this is markedly different from some other jurisdictions, eg China and parts of continental Europe. In the UK, the legal system is a COMMON LAW LEGAL SYSTEM, as opposed to a CIVIL LAW SYSTEM. It is perhaps easier to define a civil law system first, in that a civil law system is a written and accessible set of laws that cover all aspects of activity through codified legal principles and rules. These codified rules are usually created through the political apparatus, the court system is usually inquisitorial, not bound by precedent, and the law is administered by a specially trained judiciary with a limited authority. The judicial role is to INTERPRET the law. Roman law was one of the first major civil law systems, and the Germanic codes that had developed from the 6th and 7th centuries in Germany were adopted by developing Asian nations from the 19th century onwards. The German Civil Code became the basis for the legal systems of countries such as Japan and South Korea, and in China, the German Civil Code was introduced in the later years of the Qing Dynasty and formed the basis of the law of the Republic of China. So in China, in simplistic terms, the law is created by the Legislative Branch of government, the National Peoples Congress and is applied and interpreted by the Judicial Branch of government, the Supreme Peoples Court being at the top of this hierarchy, and Basic Peoples Court at the bottom. In the Common Law legal system of the UK there are a number of primary sources: (i) Common Law (ii) Statute (iii) European Legislation (i)Common Law Sometimes also referred to as CASE LAW, this is judge-made law, a body of legal principles that are made by our judges on a case by case basis. This practice has developed over the centuries in England from the time of the Norman Conquest (1066). Local customary law was gradually brought together as the government and administration of the various parts of England and Wales was centralised in London in one parliament and one supreme court. Knights originally, then judges would travel around the country from London, hearing cases and recording their decisions so establishing a set of PRECEDENTS and a unified system of law. This became known as the COMMON LAW – a law that was common to all, applied to all men in all parts of the country. An area of law that still to this day remains based in principles of common law is the law of contract, and this will be one area of law we will be considering in our studies this semester. While there is some statute law in the law of contract, most of the fundamental principles of how we create interpret and administer contracts at law in England, are to be found in common law, judge-made case law. For example, it is a rule in the law of contract that, in general, only the parties to a contract can sue for breach of contract. A third party, C, cannot sue for a breach of a contract made between A and B. This is known as the COMMON LAW DOCTRINE OF PRIVITY, and as discussed in the case of Tweddle v Atkinson (1861). In this case, the father of the bride and the bridegroom entered into an agreement to pay the groom certain sums when he had married the daughter. On the marriage, one father refused to pay the groom and the court decided that the groom could not sue for breach of contract because he was not a party to the contract even though he was obviously mentioned in it and had benefits under it. (ii)Statute Law or Legislation As judges are making laws in the court room, so our Parliament makes law by way of statute, or Act of Parliament. More and more our law is developed in this codified form, particularly in areas where the principles are complicated and complex eg company law, social security law and tax law. As these fields developed rapidly, it was not feasible to wait for a particular point to be raised by parties to an action in a courtroom, and for clarity and certainty, particularly in the commercial field, rules needed to be established and applied to keep pace with developments. So, for example, as business resorted more and more to conducting commercial ventures through the corporation, it became clear that we needed regulation in codified form to govern the incorporation and ongoing operations of that entity. Hence, most of our company law is contained in statutory form, under the Companies Act 2006. It is the biggest piece of legislation ever passed by a UK parliament and has over 1300 sections. It took 10 years to draft and introduce, and only fully came into force in 2009. Cases on the points of law in the Act are only just now starting to take place in the companies courts. So, in semester 2, in the module Commercial Law, we will be concentrating our focus on statute law, unlike this semesters focus on the common law, as it contains the fundamentals of the law relating to contracts in England. Finally, it should be noted here that if there is a conflict between the common law and statute law, STATUTE WILL PREVAIL. (iii) European law On Britain’s entry into the European Community in 1972, our parliament enacted a piece of legislation called the European Communities Act 1972, under which Britain made an undertaking to be bound by COMMUNITY LAW, that is, laws made by the European Parliament. Section 3 of the ECA 1972 binds our courts to accept the supremacy of community law. It is not however strictly correct to say that EU law automatically applies in the UK and that domestic UK law is therefore redundant. Rather, if there is conflict between the two, in a given area, then EU law is paramount in this instance. Where there is a gap in the UK law, and there is EU law on that point, then again, EU law will apply, to create a certain right or an obligation. A very significant case on the issue of EU supremacy was Factorame Ltd v Secretary of State for Transport (No 2) [1991]. In this case, the EU had made laws to govern the accessibility of all member states of the EU to fish each others waters, setting limits and restrictions on this, but nevertheless granting equal rights to all members to fish each others waters. To fish in UK waters and in this manner, a ship had to be registered under the merchant shipping regulations of the state in whose waters it intends to fish. In response to this, the UK passed an Act of Parliament which required that registration would only be granted if there was a genuine and substantial connection with the UK. As a result of this, a Spanish vessel, the Factorame, could not gain the necessary registration to fish in British waters, and legally challenged the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act 1988 on the basis that it was incompatible with EU law, and that it had been discriminated against on the grounds of nationality. After protracted court battles, eventually, our highest court at the time, the House of Lords, ruled that indeed that these provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act should be suspended (and in due course amended) as it was incompatible with the EU provisions. In the UK, a DUALIST approach is taken which means that certain types of EU law do not generally become part of the UK law, until they have been brought into effect through the passing of a piece of UK legislation, through the British parliament. This type of law is often brought into effect as an EU DIRECTIVE. Some types of EU law do however have direct effect and do not need domestic national enactment. These are commonly referred to as EU REGULATIONS, made by the EU Commission and the Council of Ministers. Finally, another important provision of EU law in the UK, is based in the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK passed an Act of Parliament, the Human Rights Act 1988, which allows UK courts to declare a provision of statutory law incompatible, if it violates the Convention on Human Rights. 2. The Courts and the Doctrine of Precedent (i)The Courts Today A basic distinction must be made between the CRIMINAL LAW, and the CIVIL LAW. The criminal law is accusatorial, and is applied through the trial mechanism, between the community, here in the UK this is the Queen, and the person accused of the crime, the accused. The case is brought on behalf of the Queen, as the representative of the community, and so this party is referred to as â€Å"R†, and the other party is referred to by name. So for example a case will be cited as R v Brown, and will be followed by the date in brackets (1993). There is also then a citation as to where and in what law report the case can be found. The civil law is concerned with disputes between individuals. The claimant commences proceedings against another, the defendant, who defends the claim, and may also counter-claim against the claimant. So, for example, as we will see, a civil claim may be brought for a breach of contract between the parties to that contract. An example would be the case of Mitchell Ltd v George Finney Lock Seeds Ltd (1983). We will discuss the facts. We will now look in brief at the court systems with reference to the text, Smith and Keenan, at pages 19 and 20. The Courts today have the Supreme Court at the top of the hierarchy, which under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, creates a new independent Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. Previously, the highest court in the legal hierarchy was the House of Lords, and it enjoyed the jurisdiction as the final court of appellate jurisdiction But again we must remember that in relation to a point in European law, the European Court of Justice has supremacy, and any court may, and in the case of the Supreme Court, must, seek a preliminary ruling on a relevant point of European law from the ECJ. We should also mention the European Court of Human Rights, which sits in Strasbourg. It was set up by the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, to ensure that those of the member states that choose to engage, observe the terms of their engagement. The UK is one of the states which have accepted the courts jurisdiction. The ECHR can now be approached directly by the person alleging a human rights violation, by bringing an action against the state responsible. So, for example in the case of Lustig-Prean and Beckett v United Kingdom (1999), the court decided that certain members of the UK armed forces who were discharged because of their homosexuality had been subjected to a violation of their human rights under the European Convention. The decision of the court meant that the armed forces had to revise their policy on homosexuality, but the case has no binding effect on private business, because it only relates to the state, in this case the UK.

Essay --

From the 1920’s up until his death Joseph Stalin was the leader of Russia. What ensued under Stalin’s reign didn’t evoke emotions of love for country within the Russian people. Under Stalin the people lived in constant fear because of an epidemic within their own country, genocide of Stalin’s own people by Stalin himself. From 1934 up until 1939 a period of mass fear swept over Russia and at the helm Stalin with his (helpers?) of mass killings, the NKVD which are the internal police. Russia has always had a form ‘state security service’ commonly thought of now as â€Å"the secret police†, but in 1929 under the direction of Stalin the NKVD was formed and though it may have a new name it still held the infamous fear and practices of its predecessors, the GPU, The GUGB, and others. Russian author Mikhail Bulgakov was alive during this period of fear, and one of the books he wrote titled The Master and Margarita shares a lot more than one s imilarity with Stalin and his regime of fear. In fact it seems like the author created this book as a commentary of the times because of the way he writes ...

Political Science Writing Assignment Essay

The article and the cases cited therein deal with a very important legal concept and the issues surrounding it. Central to the argument in the article is the meaning, scope and limitation of one of the most important and commonly-invoked provision of the Bill of Rights—the Fourth Amendment.   The Fourth Amendment guarantees each person’s right to be secured n their persons, houses, papers, and effects from unreasonable searches and seizure. It is a limitation on the government’s very broad police power. What are being protected by the amendment are the people’s security and privacy. As the courts have ruled in many cases, â€Å"A man’s home is his castle (Minnesota v. Carter, Concurring Opinion by Justice Scalia).† Every man has a right to be secured in his own home. While the amendment uses the word home, the Courts have not been very strict in applying the provision. The concept of the home has been extended to that structure other than that which the person owns and in which that person habitually lives. To determine the limitation and scope by which the protection may be applied, the court developed the concept †legitimate expectation of privacy† as the test for determining the extent of entitlement for the invocation of the Fourth Amendment’s protections. By legitimate expectation, the court implies â€Å"the prerogative to exclude others†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and the â€Å"right of a man to retreat into his own home and there be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion (Minnesota v. Carter, Dissenting Opinion by Gidsburg). Examples of the cases wherein this test has been applied are the 1990 case of Minnesota v. Olson and the 1978 ruling, Rakas v. Illinois. In the first case, the court ruled that â€Å"an overnight guest had such an expectation and thus could claim Fourth Amendment rights.† On the contrary, the 1978 ruling â€Å"held that automobile passengers were not entitled to raise a Fourth Amendment objection to the seizure of incriminating evidence if they owned neither the evidence nor the car, even if they had a right to be in the car at the time (Greenhouse).†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The court, in the case of Minnesota v. Carter, is a divided court. The majority opinion overturned the 1997 ruling of the Minnesota Supreme Court, which â€Å"set aside the narcotics convictions of two men who had spent several hours in a third person’s apartment preparing cocaine for sale.† The majority used a strict construction of the Constitutional provision as it focused on the intent of the framers of the provision to limit the application of the protection of the Amendment to the home, where a person has the strongest expectation of privacy and security. Therefore, the court ruled that â€Å"the protection offered by the Fourth Amendment extends no further than a person’s own home (Greenhouse).† No offense or violation to such privacy or security will be experienced in a place where men only stayed to conclude a commercial transaction. At most, the security and privacy rights that will be violated are those of the owner, whether or not he is included in the transaction or not.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, as already mentioned, the court in this case is a divided court. Even those who voted against the application of the Fourth Amendment have divergent opinions. An example is Justice Kennedy who, in his concurring opinion, upheld the legitimate expectation of privacy of †almost all social guests.† However, in this case, he opined that the men’s connection to the home is too †fleeting and insubstantial† to pronounce that they have acquired even a limited expectation of privacy. While his opinion gave the same result as the others in the majority opinion, he used a loose construction of the Constitution wherein he extends the protection outside the premises of the home, as opposed to what was initially contemplated by the framers of the Constitutional Amendment. This is an acceptance of and adaptation to the reality that, at present, it is already a common practice for people to invite people into their homes and to stay in other people’s homes or in other places of abode for a length of time for different reasons. This ensures that the protection of the privacy and security of these persons will not be severed just because they are outside their own homes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The divergence of the opinion of the court does not end here. It may be said that Judge Kennedy took the middle ground because there is another group of people who took a more liberal view than him, as regards the scope of the protection of the Fourth Amendment. This view is expressed in the dissenting opinion written by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, to which Justices John Paul Stevens and David H. Souter joined. They opined that the protection of the Fourth Amendment extends to short-term guests. According to the opinion, â€Å"through the host’s invitation, the guest gains a reasonable expectation of privacy in the home.† The same opinion was upheld by Justice Stephen G. Breyer in his separate opinion, but he reached a different conclusion because he believed that looking through the window blinds does not amount to a search. This interpretation is, again, a loose construction of the Constitutional Amendment. It adapts the provision to people’s recognized custom of staying overnight in another’s home, rather than use a strict construction of the word â€Å"home† as initially contemplated by the framers. The court has held that, â€Å"[f]rom the overnight guest’s perspective, he seeks shelter in another’s home precisely because it provides him with privacy, a place where he and his possessions will not be disturbed by anyone but his host and those his host allows inside† (See Minnesota v. Olson). This is similar to the concurring opinion discussed above by Justice Kennedy. This divergence of opinions arose from a very delicate line which the courts and law is trying to draw between the right of government to use its powers and the right of people to be protected from these same powers. When the facts are clearly within the initial contemplation of the framers of the law, the application is easy. However, there are cases such as this one, which treads on the line and makes interpretation and application of the law difficult. In this case, a police officer received a tip and acted on it. However, instead of going through the common process of obtaining a warrant, he observed the activity in the basement of the apartment in question through a gap in the closed Venetian blinds. The officer obtained a search warrant later, but the Minnesota Court ruled that the previous act of the officer in observing the activities through a closed Venetian blind without first obtaining a warrant was an illegal search. However, as already mentioned, this was overturned by the Supreme Court when it ruled that the people involved do not have a legitimate expectation of privacy as â€Å"one who is merely present with the consent of the householder† (Minnesota v. Carter). This application of the Amendment are viewed by at least five members of the court to be against many jurisprudential precedents which have defined the extent of the Fourth Amendment protection outside the limits of a person’s own home. Works Cited Greenhouse, Linda. â€Å"High Court Curbs Claim on Privacy in a Home.† The New York Times. 2 Dec. 1998. 30 Nov. 2007 . Minnesota v. Carter (97-1147), 569 N.  W. 2d 169 and 180, December 1, 1998.

Pan’s Labrynth Newspaper Article Essay

Yesterday night, police took in 13 suspects who could have been related to the brutal murder of a child. A young female, roughly aged 8 – 10 years was found murdered outside the famous Labyrinth, El laberinto del fauno. Police have asked around the local area of Bilbao, but have asked the townspeople to come forward, as they might hold the vital information of this case. Policà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a Juan Marà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½gon states that â€Å"We want to finish this case within 4 – 6 weeks, we need the key to solving this murder, but someone out there holds it, not us.† Police have told the public, with help from the forensics, they have found fingerprints of the future suspects. The 13 men who are kept in for indepent interviews Have released information about who they are and that they are part of the Spanish Maquis guerrillas. The man and his sister have also revealed a quote from behalf of both of them; â€Å"We knew the girl, she was very close to us both.† Once alone, the woman said â€Å"The girl was like my own daughter. I used to look after her as my own. I hope the police find out who done such a thing.† Later on, Detective Felipà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Romerez revealed the names of the woman and her brother. The woman, Mercedes Julientos, and her brother, Frederico Julientos are both suspects themselves. Whilst on the crime scene, forensics had discovered another body, one of a man, who is seemed to be aged 40 or over. During each interview, Mercedes and Frederico have both denied seeing a man at the time of the killing. At the time of the police arriving, Mercedes was holding a very young baby, who forensics say, after eximaning the body of the male, could be related to the male. The 13 suspects, along with Mercedes Julientos, and her brother, Frederico Julientos are all going under for custody of the police. They all will later be taken to court to be proven innocent or guilty. A later date wil be published for the court hearing. If more than 8 of the suspects are found guilty, each could be facing a minimum of 7 years in jail. Other suspects that have been interviewed and released on bail are many who were at the crime scene. 2 of the 13 main suspects have tried to escape, but the cheif of the Spanish police caught both red handed. They have been told that their stunt could effect their hearing and their trial. Police and forensics have partially identified the body as Ophelia Llimero, aged 8. The brother of Ophelia Llimero, is now left orphan, but will be staying with Mercedes Julientos for the time being. Sailinda Hugamos, the neighbour of Videl Llimero, said â€Å"Ophelia and I were so close. She used to come to my house everyday to eat my homemade famous Salsa. My husband and I will be extremely devestated.† The area around the great big fig tree in El laberinto del fauno will be closed off until forensics have fully analysed the whole area, and until further notice. All of the area has been closed off to local people and tourists. Dates for the hearings for the 13 suspects, excluding Mercedes Julientos, and her brother, Frederico Julientos are yet to be decided.

Data Flow Diagrams in Health Care Essays

Data Flow Diagrams in Health Care Essays Data Flow Diagrams in Health Care Paper Data Flow Diagrams in Health Care Paper Knowledge management in health care refers to the organization of and easy access to important know-how, whenever and wherever it is required. Whether it is patient data or information about medicines that is required by a health care professional at any given time, the help that information technology can provide in accessing required information, cannot be discounted. No longer does the health care professional have to flip through book after book to find needed information at a time of emergency. No longer does he or she have to go searching for doctors when electronic communication is ready to ease the functioning of healthcare facilities. Information systems allow teachers of health care to impart education more effectively to their juniors. It is a fact, after all, that information technology allows for accurate information to be stored and retrieved. What is more, as the present discussion reveals, the models used to understand information systems today may also be applied in other important areas. This is the reason why data flow diagrams of information technology are nowadays being used to impart health care information. Given the above advantages, all information technologies that ease the functioning of health care facilities have been greeted with great enthusiasm because of their ability to simplify complex data. No wonder, the health care industry has emerged as a leader in adopting various information systems, that is, systems based on latest computer technologies to store pertinent information about patients, various diseases, medications, etc. Health care professionals have had to learn to use the new technologies to make their jobs easier than before. Additionally, they have had to learn the use of latest technologies by employing a variety of tools that attempt to simplify the technology lessons for health care experts. One method of simplifying the data that goes through an information system is by way of a data flow diagram (DFD), which, in its most basic form, simply shows the source of the data that the information system uses as an input, and the channel through which the data must move through the system to reach the ultimate users of the data output (See Appendix). The information system which processes the data that enters it as an input, is held responsible for delivering the data to its ultimate users in a form that makes it easy for the users of data to understand the information thus delivered unto them. By making it simple for the users of technology to understand the information system, the data flow diagram turns itself into an essential tool for health care administrators who must understand the basic processes surrounding a newly implemented technology before they can employ the technology appropriately. The data flow diagram thus becomes one of the most commonly used systems-modeling tools today, particularly for operational systems in which the functions of the system are of paramount importance and more complex than the data that the system manipulates (Yourdon). In order to simplify complex data, DFDs were first used in the software engineering field as a notation for studying systems design issues. The notation had been borrowed from earlier papers on graph theory, and it continues to be used as a convenient technique by software engineers concerned with direct implementation of models of user requirements (Yourdon). Technology experts who design innovative health care information systems may similarly find it convenient to use DFDs while designing new systems for health care facilities to benefit from. Through the use of a DFD, it is easy for a designer of an information system to understand the processes that information must go through in the system, to break down the processes and study them in depth, and to change the processes in the flow diagram when and if necessary. The DFD method is an element of â€Å"object-oriented analysis† and is widely used in all fields concerned with the design and use of information systems (Le Vie). According to Donald Le Vie, the advantages of a data flow diagram are the following: (1) Use of DFDs promotes quick and relatively easy project code development; (2) DFDs are easy to learn with their few-and-simple-to-understand symbols; (3) The syntax used for DFDs is simple, employing English nouns, or noun-adjective-verb constructs; and (4) DFDs are good for functional decomposition. While the data flow diagram makes it simple also for people that are not technology experts to understand the principal processes involved in an information system, the model suffers from several disadvantages too. Le Vie describes the disadvantages as the following: (1) DFDs for large systems can be cumbersome, difficult to translate, and read, and be time-consuming in their construction; (2) Data flow can be confusing to programmers; (3) DFDs are useless without the prerequisite detail; (4) Different DFD models employ different symbols (circles and rectangles, for example, for entities); and (5) The model fails to distinguish data and control signals. From a theoretical standpoint, the data flow diagram has the power to show an information system at a glance. Nevertheless, information systems involve processes within processes. To put it another way, even technology experts may have a problem understanding DFDs unless these diagrams elaborate on the processes revealed through the diagrams. Furthermore, it is impossible for people that are not technology experts to understand an information system via DFDs beyond the basic processes that are shown in these diagrams. The inputs and outputs mean nothing, in other words, to those that seek knowledge beyond the obvious. All the same, DFDs are highly popular among the designers of health care information systems, as well as the administrators of health care facilities that need to understand the information systems at work. At present, DFDs are being used by the health care system in processes from prescription up to and including the administration of chemotherapy (vincristine) in the pediatric oncology inpatient setting. As a matter of fact, DFDs are capable of embracing all sorts of processes in the health care system. Partly due to their ease of use, the Healthcare Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (HFMEA) was developed with DFDs playing an important part in the design of the project. The HFMEA, the purpose of which is to improve health care by way of reducing errors, has been described as a systematic approach to identify and prevent product and process problems before they occur.† There are five key steps involved in conducting an HFMEA analysis: (1) Define the HFMEA topic: This should include a clear definition of the process to be studied; (2) Assemble the HFMEA team: The personnel should be multidisciplinary and include subject matter experts and an adviser; (3) Graphically describe the process: Develop a flow diagram; number each process step; identify the area of the process to focus on; identify all sub-processes; create a flow diagram of the sub-process; (4) Conduct a failure analysis: List all possible failure modes under the key sub-process; determine the severity and probability of each potential failure mode; use a Decision Tree to determine if the failure mode warrants further action; list all failure mode causes where the decision has been made to proceed; and (5) Evaluate actions and outcome measures: Determine if you want to eliminate, control, or accept each failure mode cause; identify a description of action for each failure mode to be controlled or eliminated; identify outcome measures to test the redesigned process; identify an individual responsible for completing the action; and indicate whether top management concurs with the recommended action (van Tilberg). Although the processes involved in HFMEA are complex, the DFD has the power to simplify them for those studying the processes. DFDs are nowadays being used for the proper management of diseases to boot. As an example, the Michigan Department of Community Health is launching a project called, Implementation of a Statewide Information System for Sickle Cell Disease in Michigan using data flow diagrams to assist in the planning and use of the new system. The purpose of the project is to develop a state-wide information system for the early detection, proper management and treatment of sickle cell disease and other complications of sickle cell disease. The first year of the project would involve meeting with the project advisory committee, hiring a change management specialist, verifying detailed flow charts of data flows to and from each partner, purchasing necessary hardware, and programming software. The directors of the partner organizations would identify follow-up protocols for sickle cell disease to be programmed into the DocSite program. The interest and willingness of physicians to utilize the DocSite program would be assessed by survey (Miller). During the second year of Implementation of a Statewide Information System, DFDs would remain in use when the partner organizations would begin pilot testing the DocSite software. MDCH staff would then modify the program and develop user manuals – all with the use of DFDs. MDCH staff would also begin disseminating information about the information system to other programs and physicians, through internal meetings with Children with Special Health Care Services, and professional meetings in Michigan (Miller). The DFD would, of course, continue to remain as a valuable tool through the entire process by also helping the MDCH staff to demonstrate the information system to others in a flash. The advantages of DFDs to modern health care processes do not end here. The data flow diagram happens to be a very important tool also for the cloning of health care information systems. By making it easy to explain an information system, the DFD allows for easy replication of the system in various health care facilities. Krol M.  and Reich D. L. have created an object-oriented analysis and design of a Health Care Management Information System. This system happens to be a a prototype for a â€Å"universal object-oriented model† of a health care system. A set of three models has been developed: (1) The Object Model describes the hierarchical structure of objects in a system- their identity, relationships, attributes, and operations; (2) The Dynamic Model represents the sequence of operations in time as a collection of state diagrams for object classes in the system; and (3) A Functional Diagram represents the transformation of data within a system by means of data flow diagrams. All of these models define the major processes and sub-processes of information systems that any health care facility administrator would find easy to understand. The DFD is, after all, a master of communication. Data flow diagrams have further assisted health care administrators in the creation of scenarios for the effective management of disease outbreaks. Whereas DFDs are generally associated with information systems, a flow design can describe the complex stages of a smallpox outbreak, for example, by broadly dividing its stages into pre-event and post-event scenarios. DFDs are similarly being used to facilitate the patient flow into the health care facilities (Hupert). What is more, these basic diagrams of information flow may be used in health care trials where complex information must be reduced to the fundamentals in order for the general public to understand the processes involved in a case (Egger). No doubt, DFDs are indispensable in the world of technology. These tools are not only used by experts of information systems, but also by health care professionals who need to understand the new systems at a glance. DFDs are a powerful training tool for the ultimate users of information systems. In addition, these diagrams may be used outside the rubric of information technology to aid people in understanding processes in the health care system. Seeing the value of ‘information’ in the health care profession, DFDs are expected to continue being used in future.

Service Users - Care Workers

Service Users - Care Workers Acting in the best interest of service usersThe primary goal of everyone working in health and social care is to act in the best interests of service users. For example:.ÂÆ'˜ doctors try to improve their patient's health, or at least their quality of lifeÂÆ'˜ nurses care for patients by meeting their needsÂÆ'˜ social workers try to improve the day-to-day life of service usersÂÆ'˜ care assistants give people the practical they need.The right of service users to expect practitioners to act in their best interests is reinforced by professional codes of conduct, and legislation such as the Mental Health Act 1983 and the NHS and Community Care Act 1990.Assessing risk to individual groupsThe decisions which health and social care practitioners make can have far reaching implications. Prior to taking action I a particular case, they have a responsibility to assess whether:ÂÆ'˜ the person is at risk from their own behaviourÂÆ'˜ the person is at risk from other people' s actions db!ÂÆ'˜ the person's family, friends and carers are at risk from the person's behaviour.English: Duke of Kent Building, Division of Health...Assessing risk to children is a particularly sensitive issue. The Children Act 1989 placed new emphasis on the importance of assessing children who might be at risk from physical violence, sexual abuse of neglect, and gave social services new duties to keep children safe.A child considered at risk is interviewed by a social worker, and may be given a medical examination if physical or sexual abuse is thought to have occurred. A child protection conference is then held, where doctors, social workers, teachers, parents, police (and sometimes the child) meet to assess the risk of the child being harmed. Possible outcomes include:ÂÆ'˜ placing the child on a Child Protection RegisterÂÆ'˜ going to court...

History of the American Labor Movement

History of the American Labor Movement The American labor force has changed profoundly during the nations evolution from an agrarian society into a modern industrial state. The United States remained a largely agricultural nation until late in the 19th century. Unskilled workers fared poorly in the early U.S. economy, receiving as little as half the pay of skilled craftsmen, artisans, and mechanics. About 40 percent of workers in cities were low-wage laborers and seamstresses in clothing factories, often living in dismal circumstances. With the rise of factories, children, women, and poor immigrants were commonly employed to run machines. Rise and Fall of Labor Unions The late 19th century and the 20th century brought substantial industrial growth. Many Americans left farms and small towns to work in factories, which were organized for mass production and characterized by steep hierarchy, a reliance on relatively unskilled labor, and low wages. In this environment, labor unions gradually developed clout. One such union was the Industrial Workers of the World, founded in 1905. Eventually, they won substantial improvements in working conditions. They also changed American politics; often aligned with the Democratic Party, unions represented a key constituency for much of the social legislation enacted from the time of President Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal in the 1930s through the Kennedy and Johnson administrations of the 1960s. Organized labor continues to be an important political and economic force today, but its influence has waned markedly. Manufacturing has declined in relative importance, and the service sector has grown. More and more workers hold white-collar office jobs rather than unskilled, blue-collar factory jobs. Newer industries, meanwhile, have sought highly skilled workers who can adapt to continuous changes produced by computers and other new technologies. A growing emphasis on customization and a need to change products frequently in response to market demands has prompted some employers to reduce hierarchy and to rely instead on self-directed, interdisciplinary teams of workers. Organized labor, rooted in industries such as steel and heavy machinery, has had trouble responding to these changes. Unions prospered in the years immediately following World War II, but in later years, as the number of workers employed in the traditional manufacturing industries has declined, union membership has dropped. Employers, facing mounting challenges from low-wage, foreign competitors, have begun seeking greater flexibility in their employment policies, making more use of temporary and part-time employees and putting less emphasis on pay and benefit plans designed to cultivate long-term relationships with employees. They also have fought union organizing campaigns and strikes more aggressively. Politicians, once reluctant to buck union power, have passed legislation that cut further into the unions base. Meanwhile, many younger, skilled workers have come to see unions as anachronisms that restrict their independence. Only in sectors that essentially function as monopolies- such as government and public schools- have unions continued to make gains. Despite the diminished power of unions, skilled workers in successful industries have benefited from many of the recent changes in the workplace. But unskilled workers in more traditional industries often have encountered difficulties. The 1980s and 1990s saw a growing gap in the wages paid to skilled and unskilled workers. While American workers at the end of the 1990s thus could look back on a decade of growing prosperity born of strong economic growth and low unemployment, many felt uncertain about what the future would bring.

Business strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business strategy - Essay Example Careful analysis of the case study on Honda Motor Company shows that the company was never driven by the strategic purpose to survive in the domestic marketplace of Japan; rather, the company always thrived for excellence in the international marketplace. For example, in the initial years, the company realised they needed to manufacture efficient, lighter and powerful engines which could not only meet the demand of local customers but also attract international customers (refer to the Honda case study). SWOT analysis in the appendix 3 is showing that technological capabilities are the major strength of Honda and the company has used its strategic purpose to excel in international market. As mentioned in the PESTLE analysis done in Appendix 1, the Japanese government has created a significant amount of exchange restriction on Honda in order to prevent it from entering the USA market. In such circumstances, Honda has decided to increase penetration in the USA motorcycle market with its 50cc super cubs. The company targeted everyday Americans who want small capacity motorcycles and Honda was successful in catering to their demand. In the early 1960s, Honda used the export mode to penetrate in the automobile market of North America but in later years, the company decided to set manufacturing facilities in USA and decrease its export portfolio (by the end of 1996, total the American investment of Honda had touched $3.8 billion) (refer to the case study). The value chain and VRIN analysis done in Appendices 5 & 4 shows that technological resources have helped Honda to achieve competitive advantage in many cases. For example, the company has doubled its technological capabilities in the research and development section in North America, which has resulted in manufacturing Accord SE-i that is brilliant in performance but $10,000 cheaper than the competitors’ car with the similar capacity (refer to the Honda case study). The strategic purpose of Honda can be unde rstood by analysing its organisational structure which reflects its mission, vision and value system. Honda has stated its value as â€Å"proceed always with ambition and youthfulness† (refer to the Honda case study). Senior executives and the chairman of the company prefer to work together in manufacturing units in order to create the sense of belongingness among workers and ensure that the company is delivering technologically superior and quality products to customer. Such level of integrity and resilience has helped the company to revert the negative situation when export of cars from Japan to USA also dropped from 3.4 million to 1.7 million in 1992 in comparison to 1987 (refer to Appendix 6). Although the road to enter the international market was not an easy ride for Honda because the company faced a diminishing trend in demand in the USA market in the initial years, but later on product innovation such as its 50cc motor cycles, light duty trucks (T-360), sports truck ( S-500), CVCC engine (compound vortex controlled combustion) (Frank, 2003), or development of SED (sales, production, engineering and development) system has helped the company to become one of the market leaders in both the domestic and international markets (refer to the Hon

Use of Software Engineering Principles in Ensuring the Forensic Research Proposal

Use of Software Engineering Principles in Ensuring the Forensic Integrity of Digital Forensics - Research Proposal Example The methodologies and principles will be reviewed using a mixed research approach. Qualitative and quantitative research methods will be used in different stages of the study. Software engineering is part of software development. It works using distinct activities or phases with the intentions of improving management and planning. Software engineering methodologies and principles include the specific artifacts and deliverables created and completed in order to maintain or develop an application. Some of the most common methodologies in software engineering are prototyping, waterfall, iterative and incremental development, rapid application development, spiral development and extreme programming (Khurana, 2007). A software development process is a set of practices, methods, transformations and actions used to affirm and obtain software and its associated products. Information technology specialists have used many software development approaches. In most of the cases, a developmental or management team prefers a combination of approaches. Traditional methodologies such as waterfall have distinct phases known as software development lifecycle. Software engineers have discussed the issue of the organization of software development in order to deliver cheap, fast and better solutions for years. The best software engineering principle and methodology is the one that provides the power to choose and react fittingly and expeditiously to various changes within its environment (Watson & Jones, 2013). The methodology should also have an ability to be imposed within its surrounding. The suitable principle or methodology should also be flexible. Different methodologies can be used during the software engineering process of digital forensic software. Digital forensic software helps in investigating computer crimes. The software development process of this software is a very delicate, and

Malaria Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Malaria - Research Paper Example The cells then invade the liver and become hypnozoites. These undergo the division and are released in the blood. The parasite infected cells burst and release further more mature protozoa in the blood which causes the chills and fever. The repeated episodes of this blood phase keep on occurring till the treatment. The parasite, therefore, acts as a carrier of the plasmodium and spread malaria (Schwartz, Parise, Kozarsky, & Cetron, 2003). It has just come to my knowledge that there was another genus of Plasmodium known as P. knowlesi. It was earlier recognized as the main cause of malaria. But the research later showed that it mostly infects the Macaques in Southeast Asia and humans to some extent. Malaria, in this case, spreads from animal to human. The animal was thought to be monkey which has been documented as a cause of human infections and deaths in the past. I also came from this fact that the malaria infected individual should not donate blood till three years. The blood bank follows the strict rules for accepting the donors who have been in the endemic area. The donor must remain symptomless for these years in order to be able to donate blood later in life. Among all the malaria species, P. vax and P. oval can for dormant liver stages that can reside inside the body for up to 3 to 4 years. The pregnant women are more susceptible to the disease by P. falciparum. P. falciparum infection may lead to the decrease baby’ weight which then reduces the chance of baby survival.... knowlesi. It was earlier recognized as the main cause of malaria. But the research later showed that it mostly infects the Macaques in Southeast Asia and humans to some extent. The malaria in this case spreads from animal to human. The animal was thought to be monkey which has been documented as a cause of human infections and deaths in the past. I also came by this fact that the malaria infected individual should not donate blood till three years. The blood bank follows the strict rules for accepting the donors who have been in the endemic area. The donor must remain symptomless for these years in order to be able to donate blood later in life. Among all the malarial species, P. vivax and P. ovale can for dormant liver stages that can reside inside the body for up to 3 to 4 years. The pregnant women are more susceptible to the disease by P. falciparum. P. falciparum infection may lead to the decrease baby’ weight which then reduces the chance of baby survival. EPIDEMIOLOGY It is an international health problem affecting 215 million people worldwide. Annually it causes about 665,000 deaths due to poor treatment regimen and atmospheric conditions. Despite the development and research on the disease, there are still many endemic areas for the occurrence of malaria. CDC has provided the data about these endemic countries, which is derived from the different sources like World Health Organization. Usually the attack is most common in the Southeast Asia, Africa and some parts of the Caribbean and Eastern Europe. Of all these cases, 65 % occur in Africa, 19% in Asia, 15% in Caribbean and to the lesser number in Europe. (Cdc.gov, 2011) It occurs in the tropical and subtropical

What is family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What is family - Essay Example With a stable relationship within the family setting, a healthy generation is created to develop the aspect in future generation. The family is formed based on the family values that accord roles to the members within the family. Each of the members is given defined roles to lead to a healthy relationship within the family. When the roles are completed and duties assigned according to the desired provisions, the members are accorded the opportunity to develop positive virtues towards future developments. The younger members of the family are accorded the opportunity to present similar fete to their own creations within the future generation. The stronger members of the family are accorded tougher roles as compared to the other members who are considered vulnerable to harsh environmental presentation. Pauline Erera in her writings explains these relationships in her book Family diversity to accord the family structure and the definition of the entity based on the contemporary values. Erera explains that the family setting and definition has changed in the modern society due to the changed roles of the members. The other aspect that has contributed to the change has been in the varied diversity evident within the setting. She lists that the families that have been developed have observed the role of protection of the members. The article lists the varied family types that have been created from lesbian families to single parent families (Erera 133). However, the article is based on the argument that the family should be based on the traditional values that had been noted to promote peaceful correlation and discipline. Through supportive evidence of the family values and the explanation of the changes in the family structure since the 1970s, Erera supports her claim of the growth within the family value. She explains that families with married couples had been diminishing from the 1970s due to the challenges of the society (Erera 118). The

Customer services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Customer services - Essay Example Purchasing, product quality and product manufacture may never interact or talk to clients directly, yet they are crucial aspects in meeting the needs of the customers. If a business wants to deliver costly goods that, does not work and make late delivery, this affects consumer service in the same way as the effects of rude sales representative will do. The entire business should consolidate its efforts to offer adequate and effective customer service. The paper will investigate different ways of enhancing customer service to enhance the profitability of an enterprise. Discussion In a bid to compete effectively in a real customer-driven way, a business must integrate its whole business operations around meeting the needs and wants if its customers – not marketing, selling and client service, but logistics of production and financial infrastructure and metrics. Business exceeds expectation of their clients by focusing innovation attempts in different areas such as creating frien dly customer process, ensuring workers commitment to services of customers and client dialog, (James, 2009, p.12). A business attains some excellence in these areas to attain effective customer service. Businesses with better customer services comprehend that providing a superior experience for clients’ triggers loyalty and enhance combine results. ... Managers should understand and improve clients experience with their products and overall business transactions and services, (Kerr, 1996, p41). Similarly, business should streamline its resources without compromising its essentials. The company should maintain close contact with its clients on a regular manner, update them with free product and service information and ensure client satisfaction. This is because mood and perception of customers truly matters in any business transaction. For instance, if one is operating a healthcare company, he should understand that his clients are dealing with emotional aspects such as medication and illness, (Leone, 1999, p.45). Therefore, the employees should offer the client with emotional support and offer empathy dimensions to motivate and retain customers. Clientelling model is an effective mechanism used by large-scale companies. It entails pairing a client with a representative or employee who signs in the customer’s actions into the company database and meets future customer services accordingly. This is effective in creating connections with profitable customers, (Macphee, 2011, p.89). A company can improve customer service using cost-cutting strategies that balance the budget without terminating fundamental service, for instances, acting on the terms of the clients. This will involve interacting with clients in appropriate ways. Instead of employing a customer greeter whom clients mainly dismiss, the managers can instruct workers throughout the company to welcome incoming customers. This is about providing services based on the client’s terms. Additionally, create a strong customer

What is family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What is family - Essay Example With a stable relationship within the family setting, a healthy generation is created to develop the aspect in future generation. The family is formed based on the family values that accord roles to the members within the family. Each of the members is given defined roles to lead to a healthy relationship within the family. When the roles are completed and duties assigned according to the desired provisions, the members are accorded the opportunity to develop positive virtues towards future developments. The younger members of the family are accorded the opportunity to present similar fete to their own creations within the future generation. The stronger members of the family are accorded tougher roles as compared to the other members who are considered vulnerable to harsh environmental presentation. Pauline Erera in her writings explains these relationships in her book Family diversity to accord the family structure and the definition of the entity based on the contemporary values. Erera explains that the family setting and definition has changed in the modern society due to the changed roles of the members. The other aspect that has contributed to the change has been in the varied diversity evident within the setting. She lists that the families that have been developed have observed the role of protection of the members. The article lists the varied family types that have been created from lesbian families to single parent families (Erera 133). However, the article is based on the argument that the family should be based on the traditional values that had been noted to promote peaceful correlation and discipline. Through supportive evidence of the family values and the explanation of the changes in the family structure since the 1970s, Erera supports her claim of the growth within the family value. She explains that families with married couples had been diminishing from the 1970s due to the challenges of the society (Erera 118). The

Media Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Media Analysis - Research Paper Example This essay aims to provide a timeline of important events and to describe and analyze three media artifacts that covered the Beslan school hostage crisis: 1) Peter Baker and Susan B. Glasser (2004)’s newspaper article that has an online version; 2) 48 Hours of CBS News’ video clip of the negotiation and release of some hostages; and 3) David Satter (2009)’s commentary, five years after the hostage incident. These media artifacts demonstrate some differences in how they labeled the hostage takers and similarities in their emotional rendering of the events, while one of them underscored that the blame of the crisis’ mishandling should be placed solely on the shoulders of the Russian government. Timeline of the Beslan Hostage Crisis On September 1, 2004, at around 5:30 am, a group of hostage takers seized Beslan’s School No. 1 and took hundreds of students, teachers, and parents as hostages. They exchanged fires with the police during that morning. Bak er and Glasser (2004) described the hostage takers as â€Å"guerillas† or â€Å"fighters,† from Chechnya and other nations, while the Russian government called them â€Å"terrorists† (p.1). ... On Friday, September 3, 2004, hostage takers allowed emergencies ministry workers to approach the dead bodies of some hostages who were lying in front of the school. At the same time, two hours before the bloody battle between the guerillas and the government’s troops, the president of North Ossetia, Alexander Dzasokhov, and another politician called Chechen leader Akhmed Zakayev in London. Zakayev, who stood for Aslan Maskhadov, the Chechen separatist leader and deposed president, said that they wanted Maskhadov’s help in negotiating with the guerillas because their demands were related to the Chechnya conflict (Baker & Glasser, 2004, p.2). Maskhadov was prepared to meet the rebels for the release of the hostages and the discussion of the latter’s demands. However, at around 10 to 10:30 AM, two explosions were heard inside the school. The news differed on what caused these explosions, although the ultimate result was the collapse of the gym’s roof, where most of the hostages were, the running away of hostages as shootings ensued, the attack of the Special Forces on the gym, and the subsequent battle between the army and the rebels (Baker & Glasser, 2004, p.2; The Guardian, 2004). Fighting occurred until evening, but ended at around 8 PM. On the dawn of September 4, President Vladimir Putin visited some of the wounded victims (The Guardian, 2004). Analysis of Media Coverage The first media artifact to be analyzed is the print news article (available online) written by Baker and Glasser (2004). The media sample matters because it provides vital information about the hostage crisis and it shows the difference between news language and political language. In terms of sources, Baker and Glasser (2004) relied on themselves as eyewitnesses, law

Database Technology Essay Example for Free

Database Technology Essay Objectives of the course: †¢ This course aims to provide continuum to where the first course of databases left off. Design aspects of relational databases are covered. †¢ Complex data models like OO OR parallel and distributed are introduced. †¢ The course provides students a good overview of the ideas and the techniques, which are behind recent developments in the fields of data warehousing and Online Analytical Processing (OLAP). 1. Overview Review of relational database systems, ER diagram, SQL. 2. Integrity and Security Domain constraints; referential integrity, assertions; triggers; triggers and Assertions in SQL. Security and Authorization; Authorization in SQL. 3. Relational Database Design First Normal form; pitfalls in relational database design, functional dependencies; decomposition. Desirable properties of decomposition. Boyce – Code normal form; 3rd and 4th normal form. Mention of other normal forms. 4. The ER Model Revisited Motivation for complex data types, User Defined Abstract Data Types And Structured Types, Subclasses, Super classes, Inheritance, Specialization and Generalization, Relationship Types of Degree Higher Than Two. 5. Object-Oriented Object relational databases Object Identity, Object Structure, and Type Constructors, Encapsulation of Operations, Methods, and Persistence, Type Hierarchies and Inheritance, Type extents and Queries, Database Design For An ORDBMS Nested Relations and Collections; Storage And Access methods, Overview of SQL3. 6. Parallel and Distributed Databases Parallel Query Evaluation; Parallelizing Individual Operations, Sorting, Joins; Distributed Database Concepts, Data Fragmentation, Replication, and Allocation techniques for Distributed Database Design; Query Processing in Distributed Databases; Concurrency Contr ol and Recovery in Distributed Databases. 7. Enhanced Data Models for Advanced Applications. (Overview and Design issues) Temporal Databases; Spatial Databases Geographic Information Systems, Mobile Databases. 8. Data Warehousing and OLAP. a) Data Warehouse Basics: Data Warehouse (DW) Introduction Overview; Data Marts, DW components; Data warehouse architecture; ETL Data Transformation – Extracting, Conditioning, cleansing, Scrubbing, Merging, etc., b) OLAP: Multi-dimensional modeling Fact table, dimensions, measures, examples; Schema Design – Star and Snowflake; OLAP OLAP Vs OLTP, ROLAP, MOLAP, HOLAP; tools. OLAP Operations – Rollup, Drill-down, Dice slice, pivot. Text Books: 1. Elmasri and Navathe, â€Å"Fundamentals of Database Systems†, Pearson Education 2. Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gerhke, â€Å"Database Management Systems† McGraw Hill 3. Kimball, Ralph; Reeves, Laura et al Data warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit: expert methods for designing, developing, and deploying data warehouses Wiley publications. References: 1. Korth, Silberchatz, Sudarshan, â€Å"Database System Concepts† McGraw Hill 2. C.J.Date, Longman, â€Å"Introduction to Database Systems†, Pearson Education 3. Paulraj Ponnian, â€Å"Data Warehousing Fundamentals†, John Wiley. Term Work Term work shall consist of at least 10 assignments/programming assignments and one written test. Marks 1. Attendance (Theory and Practical) 05 Marks 2. Laboratory work (Experiments and Journal) 10 Marks 3. Test (at least one) 10 Marks The final certification and acceptance of TW ensures the satisfactory performance of laboratory Work and Minimum Passing in the term work. Suggested Experiment List 1. At least one or two review SQL assignments covering triggers, assertions and authorizations. 2. Object Oriented Queries 3. Case study assignments for OO and OR database. 4. Two mini projects in distributed and parallel databases. 5. Hands on any one good warehousing tool (Oracle/SQL server Analysis tool etc.) 6. A full fledged mini project in which a student will design and implement a data warehouse. The data warehouse must be populated and OLAP queries and operations to be demonstrated for the warehouse.

Types Of Crisis With Special Reference Management Essay

Types Of Crisis With Special Reference Management Essay Natural crises, typically natural disasters considered as acts of God, are such environmental phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and hurricanes, floods, landslides, tsunamis, storms, and droughts that threaten life, property, and the environment itself. Example: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (Tsunami) Technological crises Technological crises are caused by human application of science and technology. Technological accidents inevitably occur when technology becomes complex and coupled and something goes wrong in the system as a whole (Technological breakdowns). Some technological crises occur when human error causes disruptions (Human breakdowns). People tend to assign blame for a technological disaster because technology is subject to human manipulation whereas they do not hold anyone responsible for natural disaster. When an accident creates significant environmental damage, the crisis is categorized as mega damage. Samples include software failures, industrial accidents, and oil spills. Examples: Chernobyl disaster, Exxon Valdez oil spill Confrontation crises Confrontation crises occur when discontented individuals and/or groups fight businesses, government, and various interest groups to win acceptance of their demands and expectations. The common type of confrontation crises is boycotts, and other types are picketing, sit-ins, ultimatums to those in authority, blockade or occupation of buildings, and resisting or disobeying police. Example: Rainbow/PUSHs (People United to Serve Humanity) boycott of Nike Crises of malevolence An organization faces a crisis of malevolence when opponents or miscreant individuals use criminal means or other extreme tactics for the purpose of expressing hostility or anger toward, or seeking gain from, a company, country, or economic system, perhaps with the aim of destabilizing or destroying it. Sample crises include product tampering, kidnapping, malicious rumors, terrorism, and espionage. Example: 1982 Chicago Tylenol murders Crises of organizational misdeeds Crises occur when management takes actions it knows will harm or place stakeholders at risk for harm without adequate precautions. Lerbinger specified three different types of crises of organizational misdeeds: crises of skewed management values, crises of deception, and crises of management misconduct. Crises of skewed management values Crises of skewed management values are caused when managers favor short-term economic gain and neglect broader social values and stakeholders other than investors. This state of lopsided values is rooted in the classical business creed that focuses on the interests of stockholders and tends to disregard the interests of its other stakeholders such as customers, employees, and the community. Example: Sears sacrifices customer trust Crises of deception Crises of deception occur when management conceals or misrepresents information about itself and its products in its dealing with consumers and others. Example: Dow Cornings silicone-gel breast implant Crises of management misconduct Some crises are caused not only by skewed values and deception but deliberate amorality and illegality. Workplace violence Crises occur when an employee or former employee commits violence against other employees on organizational grounds. Example: DuPonts Lycra Rumors False information about an organization or its products creates crises hurting the organizations reputation. Sample is linking the organization to radical groups or stories that their products are contaminated. Example: Procter Gambles Logo controversy Government and crisis management Historically, government at all levels local, state, and national has played a large role in crisis management. Indeed, many political philosophers have considered this to be one of the primary roles of government. Emergency services, such as fire and police departments at the local level, and the United States National Guard at the federal level, often play integral roles in crisis situations. To help coordinate communication during the response phase of a crisis, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) within the Department of Homeland Security administers the National Response Plan (NRP). This plan is intended to integrate public and private response by providing a common language and outlining a chain-of-command when multiple parties are mobilized. It is based on the premise that incidences should be handled at the lowest organizational level possible. The NRP recognizes the private sector as a key partner in domestic incident management, particularly in the area of critical infrastructure protection and restoration. The NRP is a companion to the National Incidence Management System that acts as a more general template for incident management regardless of cause, size, or complexity. FEMA offers free web-based training on the National Response Plan through the Emergency Management Institute. Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) is a relatively recent mechanism that facilitates crisis communication across different mediums and systems. CAP helps create a consistent emergency alert format to reach geographically and linguistically diverse audiences through both audio and visual mediums. Elected officials and crisis management Historically, politics and crisis go hand-in-hand. In describing crisis, President Abraham Lincoln said, We live in the midst of alarms, anxiety beclouds the future; we expect some new disaster with each newspaper we read. Crisis management has become a defining feature of contemporary governance. In times of crisis, communities and members of organizations expect their public leaders to minimize the impact of the crisis at hand, while critics and bureaucratic competitors try to seize the moment to blame incumbent rulers and their policies. In this extreme environment, policy makers must somehow establish a sense of normality, and foster collective learning from the crisis experience. In the face of crisis, leaders must deal with the strategic challenges they face, the political risks and opportunities they encounter, the errors they make, the pitfalls they need to avoid, and the paths away from crisis they may pursue. The necessity for management is even more significant with the advent of a 24-hour news cycle and an increasingly internet-savvy audience with ever-changing technology at its fingertips. Public leaders have a special responsibility to help safeguard society from the adverse consequences of crisis. Experts in crisis management note that leaders who take this responsibility seriously would have to concern themselves with all crisis phases: the incubation stage, the onset, and the aftermath. Crisis leadership then involves five critical tasks: sense making, decision making, meaning making, terminating, and learning. A brief description of the five facets of crisis leadership includes: Sense making may be considered as the classical situation assessment step in decision making. 2. Decision making is both the act of coming to a decision as the implementation of that decision. 3. Meaning making refers to crisis management as political communication. 4. Terminating a crisis is only possible if the public leader correctly handles the accountability question. 5. Learning, refers to the actual learning from a crisis is limited. The authors note, a crisis often opens a window of opportunity for reform for better or for worse. Models and theories associated with crisis management Crisis Management Model Successfully defusing a crisis requires an understanding of how to handle a crisis before they occur. Gonzalez- Herrero and Pratt found the different phases of Crisis Management. There are 3 phases in any Crisis Management are as below 1. The diagnosis of the impending trouble or the danger signals. 2. Choosing appropriate Turnaround Strategy. 3. Implementation of the change process and its monitoring. Management Crisis Planning No corporation looks forward to facing a situation that causes a significant disruption to their business, especially one that stimulates extensive media coverage. Public scrutiny can result in a negative financial, political, legal and government impact. Crisis management planning deals with providing the best response to a crisis. Contingency planning Preparing contingency plans in advance, as part of a crisis management plan, is the first step to ensuring an organization is appropriately prepared for a crisis. Crisis management teams can rehearse a crisis plan by developing a simulated scenario to use as a drill. The plan should clearly stipulate that the only people to speak publicly about the crisis are the designated persons, such as the company spokesperson or crisis team members. The first hours after a crisis breaks are the most crucial, so working with speed and efficiency is important, and the plan should indicate how quickly each function should be performed. When preparing to offer a statement externally as well as internally, information should be accurate. Providing incorrect or manipulated information has a tendency to backfire and will greatly exacerbate the situation. The contingency plan should contain information and guidance that will help decision makers to consider not only the short-term consequences, but the long-term effects of every decision. Business continuity planning When a crisis will undoubtedly cause a significant disruption to an organization, a business continuity plan can help minimize the disruption. First, one must identify the critical functions and processes that are necessary to keep the organization running. Then each critical function and or/ process must have its own contingency plan in the event that one of the functions/processes ceases or fails. Testing these contingency plans by rehearsing the required actions in a simulation will allow for all involved to become more sensitive and aware of the possibility of a crisis. As a result, in the event of an actual crisis, the team members will act more quickly and effectively. Structural-functional systems theory Providing information to an organization in a time of crisis is critical to effective crisis management. Structural-functional systems theory addresses the intricacies of information networks and levels of command making up organizational communication. The structural-functional theory identifies information flow in organizations as networks made up of members and links. Information in organizations flow in patterns called networks. Diffusion of innovation theory Another theory that can be applied to the sharing of information is Diffusion of Innovation Theory. Developed by Everett Rogers, the theory describes how innovation is disseminated and communicated through certain channels over a period of time. Diffusion of innovation in communication occurs when an individual communicates a new idea to one or several others. At its most elementary form, the process involves: (1) an innovation, (2) an individual or other unit of adoption that has knowledge of or experience with using the innovation, (3) another individual or other unit that does not yet have knowledge of the innovation, and (4) a communication channel connecting the two units. A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to another. Unequal human capital theory James postulates that organizational crisis can result from discrimination lawsuits. Jamess theory of unequal human capital and social position derives from economic theories of human and social capital concluding that minority employees receive fewer organizational rewards than those with access to executive management. In a recent study of managers in a Fortune 500 company, race was found to be a predictor of promotion opportunity or lack thereof. Thus, discrimination lawsuits can invite negative stakeholder reaction, damage the companys reputation, and threaten corporate survival. Social media and crisis management Social media has accelerated the speed that information about a crisis can spread. The viral affect of social networks such as Twitter means that stakeholders can break news faster than traditional media making managing a crisis harder. This can be mitigated by having the right training and policy in place as well as the right social media monitoring tools to detect signs of a crisis breaking. Social media also gives crisis management teams access to real-time information about how a crisis is impacting stakeholder sentiment and the issues that are of most concern to them. Public Distribution System (PDS) The Public Distribution System (PDS) in India is an important public intervention for enhancing food security. The PDS provides subsidised food grains (and other essential commodities) through a network of fair price shops. Until 1992 access to the PDS was, at least in theory if not in practice, universal. Corruption and high operational costs were among the reasons that were used to justify the move to the Revamped Public Distribution System (based on a principle of geographic targeting) in tribal, arid, hill and remote areas in 1992 and then to a Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) in 1997. Under the TPDS, households were classi ¬Ã‚ ed as Above Poverty Line (APL) or Below Poverty Line (BPL), based on the economic status of households. BPL households continued to receive subsidised food grains through the TPDS whereas subsidies for APL households have been gradually phased out. The impact of these changes can be evaluated on several criteria including selection into or exclusion from the TPDS, utilisation of PDS quotas, e ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ect on the consumption patterns and so on. Correct identi ¬Ã‚ cation could mean that the programme may have improved in terms of better targeted subsidies. Access to cheap food grain could make a more diversi ¬Ã‚ ed and nutritious diet a ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ordable for poor households. Much depends, however, on the actual functioning of the PDS on the ground. Those with BPL cards made repeated trips to ration shop that were often quite far and queued in order to enjoy this small subsidy. In spite o this, they rarely got their full entitlement of 35kg. Having spent some time at ratio shops, I noticed that they were often cheated by their PDS dealer. Those who were aware of being cheated often complained to me, but did not protest in front of the PDS dealer. I find that though BPL cards have generally been given to the poorer households in the sample, utilisation is low. Among those who have access to the TPDS, one-third of the sample households do not utilise their quota at all and another half do not utilise their quota fully. Further, many of these households purchase the same items from the market at higher prices. This puzzle of under-purchase (purchasing less than ones entitlement and yet purchasing from the market at a higher price) from the PDS is examined using a dual pricing model. The dual-pricing model provides a framework within which government intervention in the wheat market and its associated problems can be analysed. However, in order to account for under-purchase from the PDS and related patterns, the standard dual-pricing model needs to be extended to take into account additional factors such as transaction costs, uncertainty, and quality variations. There could be various reasons for low utilisation levels. Demand-side bottlenecks include cash- ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ow problems (that is, households may not have cash when foodgrain is available in government ration shops), inappropriate foodgrains being supplied through the PDS, and so on. There are also supply-side constraints in the form of diversion to the open market or just irregular functioning of ration shops. The article also examines the impact of the PDS on consumption patterns. While the PDS does not have much impact on the level of cereal consumption, it seems to a ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ect the composition of cereal consumption. Speci ¬Ã‚ cally, the TPDS tilts cereal consumption of households towards wheat , away from coarse cereals. This is possibly a matter of concern, since coarse cereals are generally more nutritious than wheat. Problems which headed in PDS Free Amenities Free Supplies: Many family card or ration card holders dont go to the Fair Price Shops to get the goods or benefits which is eligible to them. As a result rice, wheat, sugar, kerosene or any other form of PDS which needs to be settled or handed over to the real beneficiary is not properly distributed. Still there are issues of hoarding and creation of black markets. The one who deserves is deprived of the benefits. The Govt.s prime motive is to eradicate death which occurs due to starvation and poverty. As a result it was decided to introduce subsidized PDS goods and free PDS goods. Later on this PDS was taken as a political strategy by politicians for their success in elections As a result of providing free amenities and free PDS people become lazy. They dont go for any form of employment especially, marginalized sections of the people. In the case of a SSI or Tiny sector which is labour intensive in nature face the heat or crisis in the form of short supply of labour. The amount which is being spent from the States Treasury for PDS Free Amenities results in price rise for other articles, goods and services in the form of taxation and setting off the amount which has been infused / spended in the PDS Free Amenities. Due to short supply of labour and due to power crisis which is now seen in many parts of India the GDP with regard to manufacturing sector has declined. At present due to failure of monsoon and uneven monsoon rains the kharif crops are destroyed. This has resulted in a heavy loss to the farmers and this lead to reduced supply of food grains and increased prices in the market. Now this particular free PDS cannot apply due to short supply of grains. Now the people who are unemployed or underemployed face the crisis as they have enjoyed free benefits throughout these years. They dont have the mindset to go in search for any other alternative employment opportunities. These free amenities made people more greedy Suggestions to solve the crisis which was created due to free PDS free amenities: The BPL(Below Poverty Line) should be provided with these benefits. Proper survey and field work should be conducted to know the population which is in the BPL. It is better to reduce the issue of PDS to APL (Above Poverty Line) and at a later stage it is advisable to eradicate this PDS to APL as they prove to be self sufficient with their earnings. Free PDS other amenities should be provided to the marginalized sections of the society based on a condition that atleast one person either male / female in a family should make themselves employed in any organized or unorganized sector. Awareness camps on health, stress management and necessity of being employed should be given. If the above said measures were put into effect then the scarce supply of labour can be reduced. Crisis of Malevolence: Organizations face crisis of malevolence when some notorious employees take the help of criminal activities and extreme steps to fulfill their demands. Acts like kidnapping companys officials, false rumours all lead to crisis of malevolence. Malevolence Employees who behave illegally or unethically act with malevolence. Intentional harm to an individual or company is malevolence. This type of crises includes security breaches, product tampering, sabotage, extortion, lawsuits and employee scandals. Malevolence outside of an organization may include kidnapping, assault or spreading rumors. Malevolence may refer to: Evil Hostility Malice (law) Sadism Security breach An act from outside an organization that bypasses or contravenes security policies, practices, or procedures. A similar internal act is called security violation. Broadly speaking, a security breach is a violation of any policy or law that is designed to secure something. When people or vehicles bypass screening checkpoints, or enter secure buildings without presenting the appropriate credentials, security breaches are generally obvious. Less obvious are security breaches that involve data or information. In a data context, a security breach is any activity that compromises the confidential nature of certain information. Most of the time, what is or is not a security breach is defined by law. Statutes in many countries set out security measures for any number of things, from border crossings to data sharing and electronic commerce transactions. A breach is usually defined as any action, intentional or otherwise, that weakens a certain defined security interest. The best-known security breaches typically cause some noticeable harm. An airport security breach that allows a passenger to board a plane with a weapon, or a data loss that leads to identity theft are clear examples. Under most security breach laws, however, harm is not always a requirement. The threat of harm, or likelihood of harm, is usually enough. Product Tampering, the unauthorized altering of a consumer product without the knowledge of the products owner or eventual user, is almost always treated as a threat to human health or safety, because it typically changes the contents of ingested products, such as foods or drugs, in a harmful manner. An exception to this pattern is fraudulently decreasing the odometer settings on used automobiles in an effort to increase the apparent value of a vehicle to a prospective buyer. Product tampering began in the 1890s. An especially bad case was the cyanide poisoning of Bromo Seltzer containers. The worst case of product tampering in America in the twentieth century happened in Chicago in 1982, when poison placed in packages of Tylenol killed seven people. Congress responded with the Federal Anti-Tampering Act of 1983, making it a crime to tamper with products or to make false claims of tampering. Tampering motives have included revenge, financial gain, and publicity for various causes. Ta mpering incidents have triggered false reports and copycat cases, both of which occurred in 1993 in response to a fabricated story that syringes were found in Pepsi-Cola cans. To combat tampering, manufacturers use science and technology to generate tamper-evident packaging and DNA testing to identify suspected tamperers. Sabotage is a form of subversion which involves deliberate damage, interference, or disruption. In a classic example, ecological activists have disabled the engines of logging equipment in the Pacific Northwest to prevent loggers from working at various points in history. There are a number of different forms of sabotage, all of which are designed to obstruct an activity in some way, creating chaos and often generating economic problems as people struggle to resolve the damage. Many people are not familiar with the true origins of this word, although they may be acquainted with the folk etymology, which claims that the term is derived from the practice of throwing wooden shoes known as sabots into the workings of machines. Though a charming idea, this is not, in fact correct. Sabotage actually comes from the French word saboter, which means to walk clumsily, a reference to the self-same sabots discussed above; the term is actually meant to describe the work stoppage and disruption created by sabotage. One of the most infamous forms is military sabotage, in which saboteurs penetrate the defenses of an enemy and attempt to disrupt weapons systems, military strategy, and so forth. Sometimes, damage comes from within, with rebels sabotaging the military of their own nations in an attempt to help the enemy gain the upper hand. It can also take a political form, in which case it is primarily carried out through well-timed media releases and comments which are designed to undermine opposing political campaigns. Extortion is a crime that involves the illegal acquisition of money, property, or favors through the use of force, or the threat of force. Historically, the term was defined as an abuse of privilege on the part of a public official who used his or her position to get money or favors, but today, people at all levels of society could potentially commit extortion. Penalties vary, depending on the specifics of the crime. In some countries, it is treated especially seriously because it is linked with organized crime, and sometimes special laws are designed to make it easier to prosecute and punish extortion. To the casual ear, extortion can sound very similar to blackmail, in which people use a threat to demand payments or favors, and robbery, in which a criminal takes something by force. However, extortion is slightly different from both of these crimes. In blackmail, someone threatens to do something which is entirely legal, such as publishing a set of photographs, with the blackmailee offering payment to avoid exposure and humiliation. Extortion is entirely illegal, as it involves threats of violence or other illegal acts. A lawsuit or (very rarely) suit in law is a civil action brought in a court of law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendants actions, demands a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiffs complaint. If the plaintiff is successful, judgment is in the plaintiffs favor, and a variety of court orders may be issued to enforce a right, award damages, or impose a temporary or permanent injunction to prevent an act or compel an act. A declaratory judgment may be issued to prevent future legal disputes. Although not as common, lawsuit may also refer to a criminal action, criminal proceeding, or criminal claim. A lawsuit may involve dispute resolution of private law issues between individuals, business entities or non-profit organizations. A lawsuit may also enable the state to be treated as if it were a private party in a civil case, as plaintiff, or defendant regarding an injury, or may provide the state with a civil cause of action to enforce certain laws. The conduct of a lawsuit is called litigation. One who has a tendency to litigate rather than seek non-judicial remedies is called litigious.The plaintiffs and defendants are called litigants and the attorneys representing them are called litigators. When Good Employees Do Bad: Seven Behaviors that May Precede a Scandal by David Gebler Good intentions can lead to bad outcomes in business. This is  especially true in organizations that have toxic cultures in which  leaders tout worthy valuesand then put up roadblocks that prevent  employees from living those values. The GSA scandal provides an apt example. With all the rampant spending  at the GSA, one has to ask if employees were afraid to speak up, lest  they upset their coworkers. Or perhaps they had become complacent in  an upbeat, backslapping culture that rewarded everyone early, often, and extravagantly. Time will tell. In the case of the GSA, the good  intention of employeesto be a solid team playerled to a very bad  result. But its poor leadership that created that toxic culture and  allowed it to drag good employees down. Gebler says desirable behaviors such as being team players (as in the  case of the GSA), or even meeting deadlines, being goal-oriented, and  staying on budget can get distorted and become destructive in a  company driven by weak leadership values and a weak culture. Thats  because leadership values drive success, not employee behaviors. When we look at companies that have faced scandals such as recalls,  ethical violations, or crimes, the problem often comes down to  employees whose surprisingly positive behavior was distorted by a  toxic culture and clueless leaders. Here are seven seemingly benign  behaviors that may come back to bite a company if they become  exaggerated and throw the organization out of alignment: Blind loyalty to the team. Loyalty is a good thing, right? Not when it  creates a culture of I know this is bad, but its not my decision.  The unethical spending at the GSA was a symptom of leadership without  values. Employees were rewarded with lavish perks provided by managers  who had their own interests at heart. This created a culture in which  employees received the greatest benefit by staying loyal to their  coworkers and generous bosses, rather than questioning their actions. Commitment to meeting deadlines. One would think that a company where  employees are encouraged to meet deadlines and rewarded for doing so  consistently would lead to super-productivity and efficiency. In fact,  it can lead to disaster. At Johnson Johnson, the understood  directive to get product to market on tough deadlines created a  culture of Dont ask too many questions and resulted in a series of  dangerous drug recalls that badly sullied the companys reputation. Excessive optimism. When a person is sick, optimism can buoy his  spirits and help healing. When a company is unhealthy, Everything is  going to be okay is not what you need to hear from those in authority  positions. Take David Myers, former controller of WorldCom. By his own account, he saw the problems of the now-defunct company through  rose-colored glasses. He simply kept believing-and telling his  frightened staff-that the problems would resolve themselves  eventually. By the time he came to his senses, he was under arrest for  accounting fraud. Staying focused on a goal.  Telling employees to keep their eye on the prize is not intrinsically a bad thing. But when the goal becomes more important to management  than the underlying values of the organization, it can lead to a  dysfunctional culture. For example, in the 1990s, Sears gave its auto  repair mechanics a mandatory sales goal of $147 per hour. It wasnt  long before customers began to be overcharged or sold unnecessary  repairs. Having a competitive mindset. Boeing is known for its highly  competitive employees and work culture. Thats a good thing, right?  Not so in 1996, when the company lost billions in government contracts  for ethics violations after an employee stole 25,000 pages of  proprietary documents from Lockheed. Flash forward to 2005, when  employees were still so competitive that their own work teams were  known to keep useful information secret from other teams in the  company to make sure they stayed on top. Too much competition can  erode cultural values, leading to disaster. Sticking to a budget. Most managers would be thrilled if their  employees were doggedly determined to stay on budget and not cost the  company any unnecessary money. But a good intention can go bad when  financial performance becomes the only metric that matters. That was  the case, many believe, behind the fatal mistake made on the BP oil  platform in the Gulf. Before the explosion in April 2012 caused by a  safety shortcut, BPs Macondo project was more than $40 million over  budget. You know the rest. Wanting to please higher

Essay --

Vigilantism is deeply rooted in American tradition (Brown, 1975). Arising in response to an absence of law and order in early frontier regions, and a concern with self-protection and self-preservation, vigilantes were seen as valued members of society. One of the primary reasons for the value of vigilantes is that their jurisdiction began where the law ended (Burrows, 1976; Perry & Pugh, 1989). Moreover, vigilantes partook in behaviors that legal authorities would not, could not, and should not perform (Brown, 1975). Incidents of vigilantism are not isolated to the American frontier, though. Reports of vigilantism have emerged in countries such as the United Kingdom (Evans, 2003; Sharp, Atherton, & Williams, 2008), Kosovo (Wheeler, 2000), Nigeria (McCall, 2004), Indonesia (Barker, 2006), Israel (Yanay, 1993), and Ghana (Adinkrah, 2005). These reports often conjure up mixed beliefs. Some society members and organizations publicly chastise vigilantes (Hine, 1998; McCall, 2004; Perry & Pugh, 1989), while others publicly herald them as heroes (Perry & Pugh, 1989). Lawyers, judges, and citizens have seen vigilantes as necessary components in the framework of America (Brown, 1975) and several movies have idolized real (e.g., Issakaba series) and fictional vigilantes (e.g., Death Wish and Vigilante). Pundits and intellectuals have also defended real-life vigilantes (i.e., the Bakassi Boys) accused of torture, rape, and arbitrary imprisonment. Interestingly, individuals view behaviors such as rape and t orture as deplorable when enacted in everyday situations; however, when vigilantes behave in such a way, their actions are not viewed as negatively (Ekeh, 2002; McCall, 2004). Although the general concept of a vigilante is somewhat clear... ...g victims using the mechanism of dehumanization. Dehumanization removes human qualities and/or attributes from individuals by stripping them of thoughts and feelings. For example, during Vietnam, soldiers referred to the enemy as â€Å"gooks† rather than Vietnamese citizens (Kaiser, 1969). After removing the moniker of humanness, deplorable actions are more acceptable. If removing human qualities is not successful though, individuals might also ascribe demonic or bestial qualities to their victims (Bandura, 2002). Attribution of Blame Individuals might also derogate victims by using the attribution of blame mechanism of moral disengagement. Attribution of blame portrays the aggressor as a faultless victim driven to harmful conduct through forced action (Bandura, 2002). For example, some rapists suggest that the victim was â€Å"asking for it† by the way she dressed or acted.